Yoga philosophy is one of the six major orthodox schools of

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...

,Maurice Phillips (Published as Max Muller collection), The Evolution of

, , PhD. Thesis awarded by University of Berne, Switzerland, page 8 though it is only at the end of the first millennium CE that Yoga is mentioned as a separate school of thought in Indian texts, distinct from Samkhya. Ancient, medieval and most modern literature often refers to Yoga-philosophy simply as ''

Yoga Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consciou ...

''.Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 100-101, 333-340

Mikel Burley Mikel Burley is a scholar of religion and philosophy, known for his work on the Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Biography Burley gained his B.A. in 1993 from the University of Essex, his M.A. from the University of Nottingham in 1997, and Ph.D. ...

(2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, , pages 43-46 and Introduction chapter A systematic collection of ideas of Yoga is found in the '' Yoga Sutras of Patanjali'', a key text of Yoga which has influenced all other schools of Indian philosophy.Roy Perrett, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges, Volume 1 (Editor: P Bilimoria et al), Ashgate, , pages 149-158 The metaphysics of Yoga is Samkhya's dualism, in which the universe is conceptualized as composed of two realities: '' Puruṣa'' (witness-consciousness) and ''

Prakṛti Prakriti ( sa, प्रकृति ) is "the original or natural form or condition of anything, original or primary substance". It is a key concept in Hinduism, formulated by its Sāṅkhya school, where it does not refer to matter or nature, b ...

'' (nature). ''

Jiva ''Jiva'' ( sa, जीव, IAST: ) is a living being or any entity imbued with a life force in Hinduism and Jainism. The word itself originates from the Sanskrit verb-root ''jīv'', which translates as 'to breathe' or 'to live'. The ''jiva'', ...

'' (a living being) is considered as a state in which ''puruṣa'' is bonded to ''Prakṛti'' in some form, in various permutations and combinations of various elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.Samkhya – Hinduism
''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2014) During the state of imbalance or ignorance, one or more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage. The end of this bondage is called liberation, or '' mokṣa'', by both the Yoga and Samkhya schools of Hinduism, and can be attained by insight and self-restraint. The ethical theory of Yoga-philosophy is based on Yamas and Niyama, as well as elements of the

Guṇa ( sa, गुण) is a concept in Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism, which can be translated as "quality, peculiarity, attribute, property".

theory of Samkhya. The

epistemology Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Epi ...

of Yoga-philosophy, like the Sāmkhya school, relies on three of six ''

Pramanas ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".* Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, , pages 245-248; * John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, , page 238 Yoga-philosophy differs from the closely related non-theistic/atheistic Samkhya school by incorporating the concept of a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god" (Ishvara).Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 38-39

History

Bronze figure of Kashmiri in Meditation by Malvina Hoffman Wellcome M0005215

Yoga-practice

The origins of yoga-practice are unclear, but seems to have developed in ascetic milieus in the first millennium BCE. Some of its earliest discussions and of proto-Samkhya ideas are found in 1st millennium BCE Indian texts such as the Katha Upanishad, the Shvetashvatara Upanishad and the

Maitri Upanishad The ''Maitrayaniya Upanishad'' ( sa, मैत्रायणीय उपनिषद्, ) is an ancient Sanskrit text that is embedded inside the Yajurveda.Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 3 ...

. The root of the word "Yoga" is found in hymn 5.81.1 of the Rig Veda, a dedication to rising Sun-god in the morning (Savitri), interpreted as "yoke" or "yogically control". The Rig Veda, however, does not describe Yoga philosophy with the same meaning or context as in medieval or modern times. Early references to practices that later became part of Yoga-philosophy, are made in

Brihadaranyaka Upanishad The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' ( sa, बृहदारण्यक उपनिषद्, ) is one of the Principal Upanishads and one of the first Upanishadic scriptures of Hinduism. A key scripture to various schools of Hinduism, the '' ...

, the oldest Upanishad. Gavin Flood translates it as, "...having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (''atman''), within oneself." The practice of

pranayama Pranayama is the yogic practice of focusing on breath. In Sanskrit, '' prana'' means "vital life force", and ''yama'' means to gain control. In yoga, breath is associated with ''prana'', thus, pranayama is a means to elevate the '' prana'' ''s ...

(consciously regulating breath) is mentioned in hymn 1.5.23 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. ~ 900 BCE), and the practice of pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses) is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of

Chandogya Upanishad The ''Chandogya Upanishad'' (Sanskrit: , IAST: ''Chāndogyopaniṣad'') is a Sanskrit text embedded in the Chandogya Brahmana of the Sama Veda of Hinduism.Patrick Olivelle (2014), ''The Early Upanishads'', Oxford University Press; , pp. 166- ...

(c. ~ 800-700 BCE). The Katha Upanishad, dated to be from about the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, in verses 2.6.6 through 2.6.13 recommends a path to Self-knowledge akin to Samkhya, and calls this path ''Yoga''. Yoga-practice is also mentioned in foundational texts of other orthodox schools such as the Vaisesikha Sutras,

Nyaya Sutras (Sanskrit: न्याय, ''nyā-yá''), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment",Brahma Sutras.

Separate darsana

Yoga as a separate school of thought is mentioned in Indian texts from the end of the 1st millennium CE. The systematic collection of ideas of the Yoga school of Hinduism is found in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. After its circulation in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, many Indian scholars reviewed it, then published their ''Bhāṣya'' (notes and commentary) on it, which together form a canon of texts called the ''Pātañjalayogaśāstra'' ("The Treatise on Yoga of Patañjali"). Yoga as a separate school of philosophy has been included as one of the six orthodox schools in medieval era Indian texts; the other schools are Samkhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and

Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; sa, वेदान्त, ), also ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six (''āstika'') schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, ...

.Jessica Frazier (2014), in The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier), Bloomsbury Academic, , pages 24-25 According to Bryant, There are numerous parallels in the concepts in the Samkhya school of Hinduism, Yoga and the

Abhidharma The Abhidharma are ancient (third century BCE and later) Buddhist texts which contain detailed scholastic presentations of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist ''sutras''. It also refers to the scholastic method itself as well as the f ...

schools of thought, particularly from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century AD, notes Larson.Larson, pp. 43-45 Patanjali's Yoga Sutras may be a synthesis of these three traditions. From the Samkhya school of Hinduism, the Yoga Sutras adopt the "reflective discernment" (''adhyavasaya'') of ''prakrti'' and ''purusa'' (dualism), its metaphysical rationalism, as well its three

epistemic Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Episte ...

methods to gaining reliable knowledge. From Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of ''nirodhasamadhi'', suggests Larson, the Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of an altered state of awareness, but unlike Buddhism, which believes that there is neither self nor soul, Yoga is physicalist and realist like Samkhya in believing that each individual has a self and soul. The third concept that the Yoga Sutras synthesize into its philosophy is the ancient

ascetic Asceticism (; from the el, ἄσκησις, áskesis, exercise', 'training) is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from sensual pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their p ...

traditions of isolation, meditation and introspection.

Philosophy

Yoga-philosophy is Samkhya. In both, the foundational concepts include two realities: ''Purusha'' and ''Prakriti''. The ''Purusha'' is defined as that reality which is pure consciousness and is devoid of thoughts or qualities. The ''Prakriti'' is the empirical, phenomenal reality which includes matter and also mind, sensory organs and the sense of identity (self, soul). A living being is held in both schools to be the union of matter and mind. The Yoga school differs from the Samkhya school in its views on the ontology of ''Purusha'', on axiology and on soteriology.

Metaphysics

The metaphysics of Yoga-Samkhya is a form of dualism. It considers consciousness and matter, self/soul and body as two different realities. The

Samkhya-Yoga ''Samkhya'' or ''Sankya'' (; Sanskrit सांख्य), IAST: ') is a dualistic school of Indian philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, '' puruṣa'' ('consciousness' or spirit); and ''prakṛti'', (nature ...

system espouses dualism between consciousness and matter by postulating two "irreducible, innate and independent realities: Purusha and Prakriti. While the ''Prakriti'' is a single entity, the Samkhya-Yoga schools admit a plurality of the ''Puruṣa''s in this world. Unintelligent, unmanifest, uncaused, ever-active, imperceptible and eternal Prakriti is alone the final source of the world of objects. The ''Puruṣa'' is considered as the conscious principle, a passive enjoyer (''bhokta'') and the ''Prakriti'' is the enjoyed (''bhogya''). Samkhya-Yoga believes that the ''Puruṣa'' cannot be regarded as the source of inanimate world, because an intelligent principle cannot transform itself into the unconscious world. This metaphysics is a pluralistic spiritualism, a form of realism built on the foundation of dualism. Yoga-philosophy adopts the theory of

Guṇa ( sa, गुण) is a concept in Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism, which can be translated as "quality, peculiarity, attribute, property".

from Samkhya. Guṇas theory states that three ''gunas'' (innate tendency, attributes) are present in different proportions in all beings, and these three are '' sattva'' guna (goodness, constructive, harmonious), '' rajas'' guna (passion, active, confused), and '' tamas'' guna (darkness, destructive, chaotic).Alban Widgery (1930), The principles of Hindu Ethics, ''International Journal of Ethics'', Vol. 40, No. 2, pages 234-237James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M'', Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, , page 265 These three are present in every being but in different proportions, and the fundamental nature and psychological dispositions of beings is a consequence of the relative proportion of these three ''gunas''. When ''sattva'' guna predominates an individual, the qualities of lucidity, wisdom, constructiveness, harmonious, and peacefulness manifest themselves; when rajas is predominant, attachment, craving, passion-driven activity and restlessness manifest; and when tamas predominates in an individual, ignorance, delusion, destructive behavior, lethargy, and suffering manifests. The guṇas theory underpins the philosophy of mind in Yoga school of Hinduism. The early scholars of Yoga philosophy, posit that the ''Puruṣa'' (consciousness) by its nature is sattva (constructive), while ''Prakriti'' (matter) by its nature is tamas (chaotic). They further posit that individuals at birth have ''buddhi'' (intelligence, sattvic). As life progresses and churns this ''buddhi'', it creates '' asmita'' or ''

ahamkara Ahaṁkāra (Sanskrit: अहंकार), 'I-making' is a Sanskrit term in Saṃkhyā philosophy that refers to the identification of Self or Being with 'Nature' or any impermanent 'thing'. Reference in Bhagavad Gita Ahaṁkāra is one of t ...

'' (ego, rajasic). When ego in turn is churned by life, ''manas'' (temper, mood, tamasic) is produced. Together, ''buddhi'', ''ahamkara'' and ''manas'' interact and constitute ''

citta ''Citta'' (Pali and Sanskrit: चित्त; pronounced ''chitta''; IAST: ''citta)'' is one of three overlapping terms used in the '' nikaya'' to refer to the mind, the others being '' manas'' and '' viññāṇa''. Each is sometimes used i ...

'' (mind) in Yoga school of Hinduism. Unrestrained modification of ''citta'' causes suffering. A way of life that empowers one to become ever more aware of one's consciousness and spirituality innate in ''buddhi'', is the path to one's highest potential and a more serene, content, liberated life. Patanjali's Yoga sutra begins, in verse 2 of Book 1, by defining Yoga as "restraining the ''Citta'' from ''Vrittis''."Vivekanada, p. 115.

Soteriology

Yoga school of Hinduism holds that ignorance is the cause of suffering and saṁsāra. Liberation, like many other schools, is removal of ignorance, which is achieved through discriminative discernment, knowledge and self-awareness. The ''Yoga Sūtras'' is Yoga school's treatise on how to accomplish this. ''Samādhi'' is the state where ecstatic awareness develops, state Yoga scholars, and this is how one starts the process of becoming aware of Purusa and true Self. It further claims that this awareness is eternal, and once this awareness is achieved, a person cannot ever cease being aware; this is

moksha ''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriologic ...

, the

soteriological Soteriology (; el, σωτηρία ' " salvation" from σωτήρ ' "savior, preserver" and λόγος ' "study" or "word") is the study of religious doctrines of salvation. Salvation theory occupies a place of special significance in many reli ...

goal in Hinduism. Book 3 of Patanjali's ''Yogasutra'' is dedicated to soteriological aspects of yoga philosophy. Patanjali begins by stating that all limbs of yoga are necessary foundation to reaching the state of self-awareness, freedom and liberation. He refers to the three last limbs of yoga as ''sanyama'', in verses III.4 to III.5, and calls it the technology for "discerning principle" and mastery of ''citta'' and self-knowledge.''The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa – Book 3''
GN Jha (Translator); Harvard University Archives, pages 94-95 In verse III.12, the Yogasutras state that this discerning principle then empowers one to perfect ''sant'' (tranquility) and ''udita'' (reason) in one's mind and spirit, through intentness. This leads to one's ability to discern the difference between ''sabda'' (word), ''artha'' (meaning) and ''pratyaya'' (understanding), and this ability empowers one to compassionately comprehend the cry/speech of all living beings.''The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa – Book 3''
GN Jha (Translator); Harvard University Archives, pages 108-126 Once a yogi reaches this state of ''sanyama'', it leads to unusual powers, intuition, self-knowledge, freedoms and kaivalya, the soteriological goal of the yogi. The benefits of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism is then summarized in verses III.46 to III.55 of Yogasutras, stating that the first 5 limbs leads to bodily perfections such as beauty, loveliness, strength and toughness; while the last 3 limbs through ''sanyama'' leads to mind and psychological perfections of perceptiveness, one's nature, mastery over egoism, discriminative knowledge of purity, self and soul. This knowledge once reached is irreversible, states Yogasutra's Book IV.

Ethical rules

Ethical rules in the texts of Yoga school of Hindu philosophy include both a theory of values through the observances of positive values and avoidance of negative, as well as an aesthetic theory on bliss from intrinsic and extrinsic perspectives. The values to be observed are called

Niyamas The Niyamas ( sa, नियम, translit=Niyama) are positive duties or observances. In Indian traditions, particularly Yoga, niyamas and their complement, Yamas, are recommended activities and habits for healthy living, spiritual enlightenment ...

, while those to be avoided are referred in the Yamas in Yoga philosophy. Over sixty different ancient and medieval era texts of Yoga philosophy discuss ''Yamas'' and ''Niyamas''.SV Bharti (2001), ''Yoga Sutras of Patanjali'': With the Exposition of Vyasa, Motilal Banarsidas, , Appendix I, pages 672-691 The specific theory and list of values varies between the texts, however, ''Ahimsa'', ''Satya'', ''Asteya'', ''Svādhyāya'', ''Kșhamā'', and ''Dayā'' are among the predominantly discussed ethical concepts by majority of these texts. The five yamas listed by Patañjali in ''Yogasūtra'' 2.30 are: # Ahiṃsā (अहिंसा): Nonviolence'', non-harming other living beingsJames Lochtefeld, "Yama (2)", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. , page 777 # Satya (सत्य): truthfulness, non-falsehood #

Asteya ''Achourya'' (Sanskrit: अचौर्यः, IAST: Acauryaḥ ) or ''Asteya'' (Sanskrit: अस्तेय; IAST: ''asteya'') is the Sanskrit term for "non-stealing". It is a virtue in Hinduism . The practice of ''asteya'' demands that one mu ...

(अस्तेय): non-stealing # Brahmacarya (ब्रह्मचर्य): celibacy, non-cheating on one's partner #

Aparigraha Non-possession (aparigraha ( sa, अपरिग्रह)) is a philosophy that holds that no one or anything possesses anything. ln Jainism, aparigraha is the virtue of non-possessiveness, non-grasping or non-greediness.Arti Dhand (2002), The d ...

(अपरिग्रहः): non-avarice, non-possessivenessArti Dhand (2002), The dharma of ethics, the ethics of dharma: Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism, Journal of Religious Ethics, 30(3), pages 347-372 Patanjali, in Book 2, explains how and why each of the above self restraints help in the personal growth of an individual. For example, in verse II.35, Patanjali states that the virtue of nonviolence and non-injury to others ( Ahimsa) leads to the abandonment of enmity, a state that leads the yogi to the perfection of inner and outer amity with everyone, everything. Other texts of the Yoga school of Hinduism include Kṣamā (क्षमा, forgiveness),Stuart Sovatsky (1998), Words from the Soul: Time East/West Spirituality and Psychotherapeutic Narrative, State University of New York, , page 21 Dhṛti (धृति, fortitude, non-giving up in adversity), Dayā (दया, compassion), Ārjava (आर्जव, non-hypocrisy) and Mitāhāra (मितहार, measured diet). The ''Niyamas'' part of theory of values in the Yoga school include virtuous habits, behaviors and observances. The Yogasutra lists the niyamas as: # Śauca: purity, clearness of mind, speech and body # Santoṣa: contentment, acceptance of others, acceptance of one's circumstances as they are in order to get past or change them, optimism for selfN Tummers (2009), Teaching Yoga for Life, , page 16-17 # Tapas: persistence, perseverance, austeritySA Bhagwat (2008), Yoga and Sustainability. Journal of Yoga, Fall/Winter 2008, 7(1): 1-14 # Svādhyāya: study of Vedas (see ''Sabda'' in epistemology section), study of self, self-reflection, introspection of self's thoughts, speeches and actions # Īśvarapraṇidhāna: contemplation of the Ishvara (God/Supreme Being,

Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...

, True Self, Unchanging Reality) As with ''Yamas'', Patanjali explains how and why each of the above ''Niyamas'' help in the personal growth of an individual. For example, in verse II.42, Patanjali states that the virtue of contentment and acceptance of others as they are ( Santoṣa) leads to the state where inner sources of joy matter most, and the craving for external sources of pleasant ceases. Other texts of the Yoga school expanded the list of values under ''Niyamas'', to include behaviors such as Āstika (आस्तिक, belief in personal God, faith in Self, conviction that there is knowledge in Vedas/Upanishads),

Dāna Dāna (Devanagari: दान, IAST: Dānam) is a Sanskrit and Pali word that connotes the virtue of generosity, charity or giving of alms in Indian philosophies. In Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, dāna is the practice of cu ...

(दान , charity, sharing with others), ''Hrī'' (ह्री, remorse and acceptance of one's past/mistakes/ignorance, modesty) ''Mati'' (मति, think and reflect, reconcile conflicting ideas) and ''Vrata'' (व्रत, resolutions and vows, fast, pious observances).

Epistemology

Yoga school, like Samkhya school, considers ''Pratyakṣa'' or ''Dṛṣṭam'' (direct sense perception), ''Anumāna'' (inference), and ''Śabda'' or ''Āptavacana'' (verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras) to be the only valid means of knowledge or '' Pramana''. Unlike few other schools of Hinduism such as

Advaita Vedanta ''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta. The term ''Advaita'' ...

, Yoga did not adopt the following three '' Pramanas'': ''Upamāṇa'' (comparison and analogy), ''Arthāpatti'' (postulation, deriving from circumstances) or ''Anupalabdi'' (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof). * ''Pratyakṣa'' (प्रत्यक्षाय) means perception. It is of two types in Hindu texts: external and internal. External perception is described as that arising from the interaction of the five senses and worldly objects, while internal perception is described by this school as that of the inner sense, the mind.MM Kamal (1998), "The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy", ''Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies'', 46(2): 13-16 The ancient and medieval Indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception: ''Indriyarthasannikarsa'' (direct experience by one's sensory organ/s with the object, whatever is being studied), ''Avyapadesya'' (non-verbal; correct perception is not through hearsay, according to ancient Indian scholars, where one's sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else's perception), ''Avyabhicara'' (without wandering; correct perception is without change, nor is it the result of deception because one's sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, suspect) and ''Vyavasayatmaka'' (definite; correct perception excludes judgments of doubt, either because of one's failure to observe all the details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to observe).Karl Potter (1977), ''Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies'', Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 160-168 Some ancient scholars proposed "unusual perception" as ''pramana'' and called it internal perception, a proposal contested by other Indian scholars. The internal perception concepts included ''pratibha'' (intuition), ''samanyalaksanapratyaksa'' (a form of induction from perceived specifics to a universal), and ''jnanalaksanapratyaksa'' (a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state). Further, some schools of Hinduism considered and refined rules of accepting uncertain knowledge from ''Pratyakṣa-pranama'', so as to contrast ''nirnaya'' (definite judgment, conclusion) from ''anadhyavasaya'' (indefinite judgment). * ''Anumāṇa'' (अनुमान) means inference. It is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason. Observing smoke and inferring fire is an example of ''Anumana''. In all except one of the Hindu philosophies, this is a valid and useful means to knowledge. The method of inference is explained by Indian texts as consisting of three parts: ''pratijna'' (hypothesis), ''hetu'' (a reason), and ''drshtanta'' (examples).James Lochtefeld, "Anumana" in ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing. , page 46-47 The hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts, state the ancient Indian scholars: ''sadhya'' (that idea which needs to be proven or disproven) and ''paksha'' (the object on which the ''sadhya'' is predicated). The inference is conditionally true if ''sapaksha'' (positive examples as evidence) are present, and if ''vipaksha'' (negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian philosophies also state further epistemic steps. For example, they demand ''Vyapti'' – the requirement that the ''hetu'' (reason) must necessarily and separately account for the inference in "all" cases, in both ''sapaksha'' and ''vipaksha''. A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a ''nigamana'' (conclusion). * ''Śabda'' (शब्द) means relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts.* Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, , pages 245-248; * John A. Grimes, ''A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English'', State University of New York Press, , page 238DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, , page 172 Hiriyanna explains ''Sabda-pramana'' as a concept which means reliable expert testimony. The schools of Hinduism which consider it epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly.M. Hiriyanna (2000), ''The Essentials of Indian Philosophy'', Motilal Banarsidass, , page 43 He must cooperate with others to rapidly acquire and share knowledge and thereby enrich each other's lives. This means of gaining proper knowledge is neither spoken or written, but through ''Sabda'' (sound). The reliability of the source is important, and legitimate knowledge can only come from the ''Sabda'' of reliable sources. The disagreement between the schools of Hinduism has been on how to establish reliability. Some schools, such as Carvaka, state that this is never possible, and therefore ''Sabda'' is not a proper ''pramana''. Other schools debate means to establish reliability.

God in Yoga school of Hinduism

Yoga philosophy allows the concept of God, unlike the closely related Samkhya school of Hinduism which is non-theistic.Roy Perrett (2007), Samkhya-Yoga Ethics, Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges (Editors: Purusottama Bilimoria et al), Volume 1, , page 151 Hindu scholars such as the 8th century

Adi Sankara Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shank ...

, as well many modern academic scholars describe the Yoga school as "Samkya school with God."

(2012), ''Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience'', Routledge, , pages 31-46 The ''Yoga Sutras of Patanjali'' use the term ''Isvara'' in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutras' release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what is ''Isvara''. These commentaries range from defining ''Isvara'' as a "personal god" to a "special self" to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual". Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of ''Isvara'' in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation". Patanjali defines ''Isvara'' (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष, ''puruṣa-viśeṣa'')",* Sanskrit Original with Translation 1
The Yoga Philosophy
TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives; * Translation 2
The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa
GN Jha (Translator), with notes; Harvard University Archives; * Translation 3
''The Yogasutras of Patanjali''
Charles Johnston (Translator)

Sanskrit:
– Yoga Sutras I.24

This sutra of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism adds the characteristics of ''Isvara'' as that special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, ''aparamrsta'') by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, ''klesha''), one's circumstances created by the past or by one's current actions (कर्म, ''karma''), one's life fruits (विपाक, ''vipâka''), and one's psychological dispositions or intentions (आशय, ashaya).aparAmRSTakleza, karma, vipaka and ashaya
''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Koeln University, Germany

Text sources

The most studied ancient and medieval era texts of the Yoga school of philosophy include those by Patanjali, Bhaskara, Haribhadra (Jain scholar), Bhoja, and Hemachandra. References to the teachings of the Yoga school of Hinduism abound in ancient Indian texts of other orthodox schools of Hinduism, for example, verse 5.2.17 of

Vaisheshika Sutra Vaisheshika or Vaiśeṣika ( sa, वैशेषिक) is one of the six schools of Indian philosophy (Vedic systems) from ancient India. In its early stages, the Vaiśeṣika was an independent philosophy with its own metaphysics, epistemolog ...

by Kanada, belonging to the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism and dated to be from the 1st millennium BCE, states The '' Nyāya Sūtras'' by Akshapada variously dated to be from 4th to 2nd century BCE,Michael Brannigan (2009), Striking a Balance: A Primer in Traditional Asian Values, Rowman & Littlefield, , page 7 and belonging to the Nyaya school of Hinduism, in chapter 4.2 discusses the importance of Yoga as follows, The '' Brahma Sutras'' by Badarayana, estimated to have been completed in its surviving form in approx. 400-450 CE, , Quote: "...we can take it that 400-450 is the period during which the ''Brahma Sūtras'' was compiled in its extant form." while the original version might be ancient and composed between 500 BCE and 200 BCE, belonging to the

school of Hinduism, in chapter 2 assumes the existence of a text called Yoga Smriti. Scholars contest whether this text was a precursor or the same as Patanjali's Yogasutra, but either premise is uncertain. The verses of Brahma Sutras assert that dualism of the prevailing Yoga philosophy is refuted, as the value of Yoga is as a means to realization of the Self, not in propositions about Self that is in conflict with the Vedic texts. Radhakrishnan translates the text as follows, The '' Yoga Vasistha'' is a syncretic text on Yoga philosophy, variously dated to be from 6th- to 14th-century CE.S Venkatesananda (Author) and CK Chapelle (Editor, 1985), The Concise Yoga Vasistha, State University of New York Press, , page x It is structured as a dialogue between sage Vasistha of the Vedic era and the philosopher-king

Rama Rama (; ), Ram, Raman or Ramar, also known as Ramachandra (; , ), is a major deity in Hinduism. He is the seventh and one of the most popular '' avatars'' of Vishnu. In Rama-centric traditions of Hinduism, he is considered the Supreme Bei ...

of the Hindu epic ''

Ramayana The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th to 4th centuries BCE, and later stages ...

''.S Venkatesananda (Author) and CK Chapelle (Editor, 1985), The Concise Yoga Vasistha, State University of New York Press, , pages xi-xii The text synthesizes elements of

Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle bein ...

, Samkhya, Saiva Siddhanta and

Mahayana Buddhism ''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing br ...

. Among other things, the text discusses Yoga philosophy in its various chapters. In section 6.1, ''Yoga Vasistha'' introduces Yoga as follows,

References

Sources

;Printed sources * * * * * * * * * * * ;Websources

External links

Yoga and Freedom: A Reconsideration of Patañjali's Classical Yoga
Ian Whicher (1998), Philosophy East and West, Vol. 48, No. 2, pages 272–322
Yoga and modern philosophy
Mircea Eliade (1963), The Journal of General Education, Vol. 15, No. 2, pages 124–137
Mind/Consciousness Dualism in Sā̇ṅkhya-Yoga Philosophy
Paul Schweizer (1993), Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, Vol. 53, No. 4, pages 845–859
Saṁskāras in Yoga Philosophy and Western Psychology
N. Mishra (1953), Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 4, pages 308–316
Plato in the Light of Yoga
Jeffrey Gold (1996), Philosophy East and West, Vol. 46, No. 1 (Jan., 1996), pages 17–32
Yoga in Sankara's Advaita Vedanta

T. S. Rukmani Trichur Subramaniam Rukmani, often known as T. S. Rukmani, is a Sanskritist who served many years on the faculty of Concordia University (1996-2012) and retired in 2012. She translated many Sanskrit texts into English. Biography Rukmani was born ...

(2006), Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 87, pages 123–134
General Systems Philosophy and Sāṃkhya-Yoga: Some Remarks
M. K. Bannerjee (1982), Philosophy East and West, Vol. 32, No. 1, pages 99–104
Patanjali's Yogasutras – A Synthesis of many Yogic traditions
T. S. Rukmini (1981), Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 62, pages 213–218
The Yogī and the Goddess
Nicholas F. Gier (1997), International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, pages 265–287
Philosophico Literary Research
Kaivalyadhama Research Department {{Hindudharma Hindu philosophy Movements in ancient Indian philosophy